The insect assemblage of exceptionally preserved debris carriers from Cretaceous ambers are the oldest direct evidence of camouflage behaviour utilizing trash in the fossil record and show unequivocal evidence of camouflage in immature lacewings and reduviids dating back more than 100 million years. They demonstrate that the behavioural repertoire, which is associated with considerable morphological adaptations, was already widespread among insects by at least the Mid-Cretaceous. These findings provide a novel insight into early evolution of camouflage in insects and ancient ecological associations among plants and insects.
Chrysopoid larvae from Mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber (Image by WANG bo) and the reconstruction of naked chrysopoid larva (Image by YANG Dinghua) Insects have evolved diverse types of camouflage that have played an important role in their evolutionary success. Debris-carrying, a behaviour of actively harvesting and carrying exogenous materials, is among the most fascinating and complex behaviours because it requires not only an ability to recognize, collect, and carry materials, but also evolutionary adaptations in related morphological characteristics. The fossil record, however, of such behavior is extremely scarce, and only a single Mesozoic example from Spanish amber has been recorded previously; therefore, little is known about the early evolution of this complicated behaviour and its underlying anatomy. Dr. WANG Bo from Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and his colleagues have now reported a diverse insect assemblage of exceptionally preserved debris carriers from Cretaceous Burmese, French, and Lebanese ambers, including the earliest known chrysopoid larvae (green lacewings), myrmeleontoid larvae (split-footed lacewings and owlflies), and reduviids (assassin bugs). The study has been published on Science Advances, on this Friday, 24 June 2016. These ancient insects used a variety of debris material, including insect exoskeletons, sand grains, soil dust, leaf trichomes of gleicheniacean ferns, wood fibres, and other vegetal debris. They convergently evolved their debris-carrying behaviour through multiple pathways, which expressed a high degree of evolutionary plasticity. Myrmeleontoid larvae from Mid-Cretaceous Burmese and French ambers These fossils are the oldest direct evidence of camouflage behaviour utilizing trash in the fossil record and show unequivocal evidence of camouflage in immature lacewings and reduviids dating back more than 100 million years. They demonstrate that the behavioural repertoire, which is associated with considerable morphological adaptations, was already widespread among insects by at least the Mid-Cretaceous. These findings provide a novel insight into early evolution of camouflage in insects and ancient ecological associations among plants and insects. Most Burmese amber lacewing larvae are preserved with dendritic trichomes produced by gleicheniacean ferns, and two chrysopoid larvae are carrying these trichomes, suggesting that these fossil lacewing larvae are closely associated with the habitats of gleicheniacean ferns.
Morphotype MII, dorsal aspect. Note that a spider is preying on the naked larva Gleicheniaceae are important components of many Mid-Cretaceous floras worldwide, and are thought to be among the earliest colonizers after fire events. Therefore, the frequent occurrence of gleicheniacean trichomes in the Burmese amber is indicative of fire events during the time when the amber was deposited. This supports a relationship between fire events and the high production of plant resins and also highlights the importance of wildfires in Mid-Cretaceous pre-angiospermous ecosystems. Reference: Wang Bo, Xia Fangyuan, Engel M.S., Perrichot V., Shi Gongle, Zhang Haichun, Chen Jun, Jarzembowski E.A., Wappler T., Rust J. (2016) Trash-carrying camouflage among diverse lineages of Cretaceous insects. Science Advances, 2: e1501918. WANG Bo Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology E-mail: bowang@nigpas.ac.cn
The new bizarre ant described from 99 million-year-old Burmese amber that displays a prominent cephalic horn and oversized, scythelike mandibles that extend high above the head, demonstrates that early following the advent of ant societies in the Early Cretaceous at least one lineage, the Haidomyrmecini, became adept at prey capture, independently arriving at morphological specializations that would be lost for millions of years after their disappearance near the close of the Mesozoic.
General dorsal view of holotype of new late Cretaceous worker ants Ceratomyrmex ellenbergeri (Image by WANG bo) Ants comprise one lineage of the triumvirate of eusocial insects and experienced their early diversification within the Cretaceous. The success of ants is generally attributed to their remarkable social behavior. Recent studies suggest that the early branching lineages of extant ants formed small colonies of subterranean or epigeic, solitary specialist predators. The vast majority of Cretaceous ants belong to stem-group Formicidae and comprise workers and reproductives of largely generalized morphologies, and it is difficult to draw clear conclusions about their ecology, although recent discoveries from the Cretaceous suggest relatively advanced social levels. Remarkable exceptions to this pattern of generalized morphologies are ants with bizarre mouthparts in which both female castes have modified heads and bladelike mandibles that uniquely move in a horizontal rather than vertical plane. Haidomyrmecines have puzzled evolutionary biologists as to their specific ecology, the mandibles apparently acting as traps triggered by sensory hairs in a way distinct from that of modern trap-jaw ants.
Life-like reconstruction of Ceratomyrmex ellenbergeri (Image by YANG Dinghua) Not all ants cooperate in social hunting, however, and some of the most effective predatory ants are solitary hunters with powerful trap jaws. Models of early ant evolution predict that the first ants were solitary specialist predators, but discoveries of Cretaceous fossils suggest group recruitment and socially advanced behavior among stem-group ants. Dr. WANG Bo from Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and his colleagues describe a new bizarre ant Ceratomyrmex ellenbergeri from 99 million-year-old Burmese amber that displays a prominent cephalic horn and oversized, scythelike mandibles that extend high above the head. These structures presumably functioned as a highly-specialized trap for large-bodied prey. The horn results from an extreme modification of the clypeus hitherto unseen among living and extinct ants, which demonstrates the presence of an exaggerated trap-jaws morphogenesis early among stem-group ants. Together with other Cretaceous haidomyrmecine ants, the new fossil suggests that at least some of the earliest Formicidae were solitary specialist predators. In addition, it demonstrates that early following the advent of ant societies in the Early Cretaceous at least one lineage, the Haidomyrmecini, became adept at prey capture, independently arriving at morphological specializations that would be lost for millions of years after their disappearance near the close of the Mesozoic. The exaggerated condition in the new fossil reveals a proficiency for large-bodied carriage and to the exclusion of smaller, presumably easier-to-subdue prey, and highlights a more complex and diversified suite of ecological traits for the earliest ants. The study entitled “Extreme morphogenesis and ecological specialization among Cretaceous basal ants” has been published online in Current Biology, doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.075. WANG BoNanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology E-mail: bowang@nigpas.ac.cn
Left: Type specimen of Yuhania daohugouensis. Right: Reconstructions of partial plant, aggregate fruit, and fruit/carpel of Yuhania daohugouensis. Despite increasing claims of pre-Cretaceous angiosperms, whether there really are angiosperms in the Jurassic is apparently still an open question for many people before further evidence is available. This question can only be answered by studying more Jurassic plant fossils. Recently Dr. WANG Xin from Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences reported a fossil angiosperm, Yuhania daohugouensis gen. et sp. nov, from the Middle Jurassic of Inner Mongolia, China. The plant includes connected stem, leaves, flowers, aggregate fruits, fruitlets, and seeds within fruitlets. The leaves are helically arranged along the curving stem, linear in shape, with 5-6 parallel veins. The aggregate fruit is pedicellate, composed of over 20 carpels/fruitlets helically arranged. Each fruitlet encloses a seed. The reproductive organs in various stages are found in the same plant, allowing us to understand the development of Yuhania. The occurrence of Yuhania in the Middle Jurassic re-confirms the Jurassic history for angiosperms that has been suggested by other independent research and adds to the on-going study on the early evolution of angiosperms. Reference: Liu, Z.-J., Wang, X., in press. Yuhania: A unique angiosperm from the Middle Jurassic of Inner Mongolia, China. Historical Biology.
Microfacies types of the coral biostrome. (a) Kueichouphyllum bafflestone. (b-d) Syringopora, Siphonodendron and Kueichouphyllum-Syringopora bafflestone and framestone. (e-h) Coral, bryozoan, calcareous algae and microbial floatstone. The Mississippian was an important interval for reef evolution when metazoan bioconstructions recovered after the collapse of coral-stromatoporoid reefal ecosystem during the Late Devonian mass extinction event. In the Tournaisian times, no metazoan bioconstructions have been reported, which did not appear until the early Viséan and then gradually flourished. The diversity and abundance of metazoan bioconstructions reached maximum value during the late Viséan. As a type of metazoan bioconstruction, coral biostromes also recovered and flourished during the Viséan. They occurred first in the middle Viséan and gradually increased to peak value during the late Viséan, which were widely distributed in Western Europe and North Africa (western Palaeotethys). To date, no Viséan coral biostromes have been reported in South China (eastern Palaeotethys). Their compositions and relationships to coeval coral biostromes in western Palaeotethys are not understood. To better understand the composition and evolution of the coral biostromes during this critical interval in South China, a middle Viséan (Mississippian) coral biostrome from the Shangsi Formation in Yashui area, central Guizhou Province, southwestern China was detailly reported for the first time by Dr. YAO Le from Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The biostrome is about 500 m across and 2.5~3.9 m thick, with low taxonomic diversity comprising 5 coral species belonging to 5 genera. The main builders are Siphonodendron pentalaxoidea, Syringopora sp. and Kueichouphyllum sinense. Associated fossils include abundant brachiopods, crinoids and common foraminifers together with rare calcareous algae, bryozoans, gastropods and ostracods. The lithological and microfacies types of the biostrome are abundant, mainly containing coral bafflestone and framestone, and bioclastic wackestone. Three growth stages of the biostrome are distinguished, based on different compositions of coral taxa, which are K. sinense growth stage, K. sinense-Syringopora sp. growth stage and S. pentalaxoidea growth stage in ascending order. Relative sea-level changes are interpreted to have controlled growth and demise of the biostrome. This coral biostrome has similar biotic composition to middle to late Viséan coral biostromes in Europe and North Africa. The approximately coeval occurrence of coral biostromes in both eastern and western Palaeotethys suggests that a relatively global warm episode existed during the Viséan Stage. Model for sea-level changes controlling the growth and demise of the coral biostrome The paper was published in Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, and financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Ministry of Science and Technology Foundation Project. Reference: Yao, L., Wang, X.D., Lin, W., Li, Y., Kershaw, S., Qie, W.K., 2016. Middle Viséan (Mississippian) coral biostrome in central Guizhou, southwestern China and its palaeoclimatological implications. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 448: 179-194.
New fossils discovered in Northern China suggest that life "went large" on Earth more than 1.5 billion years ago, or nearly one billion years earlier than previously thought.
Decimetre-scale multicellular fossils from the 1.56-billion-year-old rocks of North China (Picture by ZHU Maoyan) New fossils discovered in Northern China suggest that life "went large" on Earth more than 1.5 billion years ago, or nearly one billion years earlier than previously thought. This research has been published in Nature Communications DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11500, on May 18, 2016. According to the report by Prof. ZHU Maoyan from Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and his colleagues, these 1.56-billion-year-old, macroscopic multicellular eukaryotes fossils are preserved as carbonaceous (carbon-rich) compressions with size up to 30 cm long and 8 cm wide, which are discovered in the mudstone of the Mesoproterozoic "Gaoyuzhuang Formation" in the Yanshan region, Hebei Province. Among the total 167 measurable fossils, 53 fossils exhibit at least four regular shapes (linear, cuneate, oblong and tongue-shaped). Organic fragments extracted by acid maceration from the host rocks of the macroscopic Gaoyuzhuang fossils show extraordinarily well-preserved multicellular cell structure. Based on the morphometric analyses of these macrofossils and syngenetic cellular microfossils, authors interpret these Gaoyuzhuang fossils as benthic, multicellular and likely photosynthetic eukaryotes with unprecedentedly large size and a modest diversity populated in early Mesoproterozoic seas. However, their exact affinity remains uncertain. Further research will help to shed light into these ancient marine ecosystems. Before discovery of the Gaoyuzhuang macrofossils, eukaryotes with comparable size do not know in the fossil record until ca. 600 million years ago in Ediacaran seas, so this new discovery predates diversification of macroscopic multicellular eukaryotes by nearly 1,000 million years. The Gaoyuzhuang macrofossils represent the compelling evidence for the early evolution of organisms large enough to be visible with the naked eye, and totally renew the current knowledge on early history of life written in textbook that the oldest known macroscopic organism is Grypania, a coiled and ribbon-like fossil of less two millimeters wide and few centimeters long during the early Proterozoic. Therefore, the discovery provides a crucial benchmark for our understanding of early evolution of eukaryotes, and stimulate new thinking on the Proterozoic Earth-life system which has been called as the "Boring Billion" or "Earth’s middle age" exhibiting evolutionary stasis. The research project was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the Ministry of Science and Technology of China, the China Geological Survey, and the NASA Astrobiology Institute. Contact: Prof. ZHU Maoyan State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy (LPS) Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences E-mail: myzhu@nigpas.ac.cn Related News: BBC News: Life forms 'went large' a billion years ago Phys.org: Complex life a billion years earlier than thought? Daily Mail: Is this the world's first multicellular life? ABC: Seaweed-like fossils may be earliest large multicellular life forms on Earth Washington Post: Did you know Earth had a boring phase? Neither did these huge fossils redOrbit: Complex life formed 1.5 billion years ago, study finds Science News: 1.56-billion-year-old fossils add drama to Earth’s ‘boring billion’
Recently, scientists from China, France, Germany, Lebanon and other countries comprehensively studied a peculiar group of small insects from 100 million-year-old Burmese amber. These insects are named Archipsyllidae, a group previously often shown in the Middle Jurassic Daohugou biota, and they can be traced back in more ancient geological time. Compression fossils of Archipsyllidae are usually compared with the modern Psocoptera, although they are not exactly the same. Despite their minute body sizes (about 2 mm long), the exceptional preservation of amber inclusions provides important new morphological details for understanding the morphology and early evolution of these insects. The study was mainly focused on the complex mouthparts of these insects, which represent an evolutionary link documenting the transition from chewing to piercing mouthparts in relation to suction feeding. Considering other peculiar structures, these “missing link” fossils are attributed to a new order Permopsocida, a group comprising more than 20 extinct species from Permian to Cretaceous. Fossils from the Burmese amber represent the latest occurrences for the order, and they persisted for about 200 million years. The permopsocid mouthparts are highly specialized, which can be inferred from Jurassic forms from Daohugou. Possible lycopod sporangia were found from the gut of a Jurassic form. Interestingly, in the abdomen of an amber fossil thousands of pollen grains were recognized, and they are referred to the angiosperm family Nyssaceae. Their unique mouthparts were well adapted to feed on Nyssaceae pollens (about 10 mm in diameter). Nyssaceae is now still living in Southeast Asia and North America, but Permopsocida have become extinct for a long time. After the emergence of angiosperms, they evolved complex co-evolutionary relationships with insects, resulting in radiation of modern angiosperms many insects. However, direct evidence indicating insect-mediated pollination in the Mesozoic is rare. The study provides an excellent example for understanding the co-evolution between plants and insects. Related information of this paper: Huang Diying, Bechly G., Nel P., Engel M. S., Prokop J., Azar D., Cai Chenyang, Kamp T. van de, Staniczek A., Garrouste R., Krogmann L., Rolo T. dos S., Baumbach T., Ohlhoff R., Shmakov A. S., Bourgoin T., Nel A., 2016: New fossil insect order Permopsocida elucidates major radiation and evolution of suction feeding in hemimetabolous insects (Hexapoda: Acercaria). Scientific Reports 6, 23004, doi: 10.1038/srep23004 Holotype of Psocorrhyncha burmitica, preserved in Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences.Life history reconstruction. Specimens depicted as flying or feeding on flowers of Nyssaceae.
The Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota, one of the most important Mesozoic lagerst？tten in East Asia, is especially well-known for occurrences of fossil feathered dinosaurs and early angiosperms. However, the terrestrial biodiversity, especially the fossil wood record, is poorly known. In recent years, Prof. WANG Yongdong from Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, CAS (NIGPAS) and his team have investigated several structurally preserved coniferous wood specimens from the Lower Cretaceous Yixian Formation from the Heichengzi Basin in Beipiao of western Liaoning, Northeast China. Four species referred to four genera of fossil wood are described, including Taxodioxylon heichengziense sp. nov., Thujoxylon beipiaoense sp. nov., Sciadopityoxylon liaoningense Ding and Protocedroxylon shengjinbeigouense sp. nov. These new records enlarge the fossil wood diversity of the Yixian Formation up to 10 species in 9 genera, and provide further insights into the forest vegetation composition of the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota. Systematic analysis of the floral constitution indicates that the petrified forests of the Yixian Formation are dominated by conifers, represented by Araucariaceae, Podocarpaceae, Sciadopityaceae, Pinaceae and Cupressaceae in the western Liaoning region. Palaeoclimatical analysis of the fossil wood assemblage implies that the western Liaoning region was dominated by a cool temperate, wet and seasonal climate with variable interannual water supply in the western Liaoning region during the Early Cretaceous. This may provide potential links of palaeoclimate variations and occurrences of feathered dinosaurs of the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota. Information of publication: Ding QH, Tian N*, Wang YD*, Jiang ZK, Chen SW, Wang D, Zhang W, Zheng SL, Xie AW, Zhang GQ, Liu ZJ, 2015. Fossil coniferous wood from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota in western Liaoning, NE China: new material and palaeoclimate implications. Cretaceous Research, 61, 57-70.
Thujoxylon beipiaoense sp. nov. and its anatomical features from the Early Cretaceous of Yixian Formation in western Liaoning, China Sciadopityoxylon liaoningense from and its anatomical features from the Early Cretaceous of Yixian Formation in western Liaoning, China
Fossil Ginkgophyta are one of the most widely used indicators for estimating the paleoatmospheric CO2 levels from the Triassic to present day. There are quite a few CO2 estimates for the Triassic to Jurassic interval; however, the data from China are still limited. Recently, Dr. WU Jingyu, Post Doc of NIGPAS and associate Professor of Lanzhou University, in collaboration with Prof. WANG Yongdong in NIGPAS, have investigated two fossil Ginkgoites species, G. magnifolius Du Toit and G. obrutschewii (Seward) Seward from collections from the Upper Triassic and Middle Jurassic in Huating County, Gansu Province, Northwest China. The fossil leaf morphology and epidermal structure were studied and the stomatal parameters were analyzed for the reconstruction of paleoatmospheric CO2 concentrations. The results were recently published in the international “Pal？ontologische Zeitschrift” published in Germany. The paleoatmospheric CO2 levels during the Late Triassic of China is estimated for the first time based on fossil material from Gansu. This study demonstrates that fossils yield paleo-CO2 values of 1962 ppmv in the Late Triassic and 1320 ppmv in the Middle Jurassic. Compared with previous estimates of atmospheric CO2 concentration based on stomatal parameter of fossil Ginkgo/Ginkgoites from Northwest China, the change of Jurassic paleo-CO2 levels accord with the trend of CO2 concentration proposed by GEOCARB III and Crustal Production models. The results demonstrate that the paleo-CO2 of the Late Triassic was higher than that of the Early to Middle Jurassic; but an increasing trend of paleo-CO2 could be detected from the Early to the Middle Jurassic. The present data provide an independent check for the paleo-CO2 value estimation based on isotopic analysis. This represents the follow up study results by Wang Yongdong’s research team in recent years after significant results were get published in Earth-Science Reviews on Cretaceous palaeo-CO2 variation and greenhouse climate.
Information of publication: Wu Jing-yu, Ding Su-ting, Li Qi-jia, Sun Bai-nian, Wang Yong-dong*, 2016. Reconstructing paleoatmospheric CO2 levels based on fossil Ginkgoites from the Upper Triassic and Middle Jurassic in Northwest China. Pal？ontologische Zeitschrift, Doi: 10.1007/s12542-016-0300-1. Cuticles and stomata of fossil leaves of Ginkgoites Paleo-CO2 variations during the Late Triassic to the Middle Jurassic based on the stomatal ratios of Chinese plant fossils, and comparison with geochemical models
Conchostracans Eosestheria sp. from the middle Upper Member of Bayingebi Formation in the Celaomiao region, western Inner Monglia, China. When Laurasia began to break up in the Early Cretaceous, the freshwater and terrestrial Jehol Biota appeared and was widely distributed in eastern Eurasia. As the earliest biota of the Modern Biosphere represented by thriving angiosperms, birds, and mammals, it is generally divided into three stages: the early, the middle, and the late Jehol Biota. They have different biological characters and geographical distributions. In northern Hebei and western Liaoning provinces, the major distribution areas of the Jehol Biota, the Jehol Group (strata bearing the Jehol Biota) has been well studied. The early Jehol Biota is recorded from the Dabeigou Formation and its coeval horizons, the middle Jehol Biota from the Yixian Formation and the late Jehol Biota from the Jiufotang Formation and their respectively coeval strata. Recent investigation conducted by the group led by Professor ZHANG Haichun from Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences cooperated with colleagues from University of Hong Kong and China University of Petroleum, reports some typical components of the Jehol Biota for the first time from the Bayingebi Formation in the Celaomiao region, western Inner Mongolia, China, including conchostracans Eosestheria sp., the mayfly Ephemeropsis trisetalis Eichwald, 1864, the aquatic beetle Coptoclava longipoda Ping, 1928, and a fragmentary dragonfly. This discovery indicates that the middle Upper Member of Bayingebi Formation can be correlated with the upper Yixian and the lower Jiufotang formations in western Liaoning Province. Combining it with the radio-isotopic dating result, they further indicate that the Upper Member of Bayingebi Formation could be roughly correlated with the Yixian, Jiufotang, and Shahai formations, and the overlying Suhongtu Formation with the Fuxin Formation in western Liaoning Province. Fossil insects from the middle Upper Member of Bayingebi Formation in the Celaomiao region, western Inner Mongolia, China. In the major Bayingebi Basin, palaeontological and radio-isotopic dating evidence shows that the Bayingebi Formation has a long depositional history of over 30 Ma: its Upper Member bearing the Jehol Biota and the early Fuxin Biota is probably coeval to the Yixian, Jiufotang and Shahai formations and has a Barremian–early Albian age; its Lower Member may be Berriasian–Hauterivian in age and could be correlated with the upper Tuchengzi, Zhangjiakou, and Dabeigou formations in northern Hebei Province. This suggests that the Bayingebi Formation should be promoted to the stratigraphic rank of group and subdivided into several secondary units (formations). Unlike the previous result, the Yingen Formation is considered across the Lower Cretaceous–Upper Cretaceous boundary and being late Albian–early Turonian in age. Related information: Li, S., Zheng, D.R., Zhang, Q., Liao, H.Y., Wang, H., Wang, B., Wang J., Lu, H.B., Chang, S.C., Zhang, H.C.*, 2016. Discovery of the Jehol Biota from the Celaomiao region and discussion of the Lower Cretaceous of the Bayingebi Basin, northwestern China. Palaeoworld, 25: 76-83.
Comparison of typical characters of T. gregaria gen. et sp. nov. and T. orientalis (Rong et al., 1974). Earliest Silurian brachiopod faunas have been described from a number of regions. Among them, the brachiopods fauna from Norway and South China are totally different in many aspects, such as diversity, relative abundance and preservation. Recently, A new brachiopod genus Thulatrypa gen. nov. is formally erected by Dr. HUANG Bing from Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and his colleagues based on their collections from both Norway and China. There are two species assigned to the new genus. T. gregaria gen et sp. nov. from Norway and T. orientalis (Rong et al., 1974) from South China that occurred in the recovery interval after the end Ordovician mass extinction, are systematically described in detail. The related localities and stratigraphic information are reported in detail and compared for the two species. Their palaeobiogeographical implications are discussed. This study indicates that T. gregaria is later than T. orientalis in age, suggesting that Thulatrypa may have originated in South China in the middle Rhuddanian and drifted to east Baltica in the late Rhuddanian. Moreover, the larvae of the genus may have drifted along a channel from the east to the south-west of Baltica, which supports reconstruction of palaeo-currents for the early Silurian in previous palaeogeographical studies. Global palaeogeography at about 440 Ma in the early Silurian (revised from Rong & Cocks 2014). WSEC and solid arrows—Western South Equatorial Currrent. Dashed arrows—the cold-water mid-latitude return current. Related information: Huang Bing, Baarli B.G., Zhan Renbin, Rong Jiayu. 2016. A new early Silurian brachiopod genus, Thulatrypa, from Norway and South China, and its palaeobiogeographical significance. Alcheringa, 40: 83-97.
